First Meeting House

Having already noticed that Smith and Cox had cared for the temporal wants of early new comers, it was the next year, 1807, that Cox and Smith were careful to provide for their spiritual wants by organizing a meeting composed of those families of the same persuasion. They met at Cox’s log cabin that stood near the residence of Elizabeth Starr. The first Friends’ meeting on Whitewater for worship was held in Cox’s rude blacksmith shop, or perhaps it was a consultation meeting concerning the request to have a meeting-place established to be called “Whitewater.” It is a custom among Friends when any of their members emigrate to remote parts from where their religious meetings are established, they constitute an auxiliary to the body who have organizations, and such among them at that date were in Eastern Ohio. Suffice it to say a meeting was set up at Whitewater in 1807, and a rude log meeting-house built a few rods west of where the present large brick one now stands. It being covered with clapboards which were held down with weight-poles and the logs round, as taken from the forest. It might be proper to note that Cox donated to the society several acres of land bordering on the north line of his quarter section, adjacent to a large swamp where numerous springs of water issued. Subsequently, as the town of Richmond grew, some of this land was disposed of for manufacturing purposes, as the Gaar Company, &c. And at a later date, after the era of railroads, another portion was sold. There are many incidents connected with the early history of Whitewater Meeting that might not fail to interest the present generation. Perhaps at the present writing there are few remaining that met for worship at that meeting spot at so early a date. But owing to the rapid emigration of the Friends to Whitewater this meeting became quite numerously attended, and was some years the most promising religious meeting place for miles around. Many early settlers came to that Meeting who were not identified with it in membership and much friendship and unanimity among all the people then prevailed. In these primitive days it was noticed how the Quakers loved one another, and it was remarked by an early settler who had this good will in his heart towards all, which caused him to exclaim, “Oh blessed Whitewater.” For the information of those who may not be acquainted with the usages of the Friends it might be proper to state, that they have in connection with their religious meetings, disciplinary meetings, solely for the private business affairs of their Society. The chief objects of these business meetings are to have a guardianship over the education of the children, who, according to their rules, their birth gives them the right of membership. No immersion, sprinkling, or laying on of hands by a consecrated priest or minister is required. Another praiseworthy rule among them is, they care for their own poor; their members never find their way into the alms houses of our country. Yet it may be lamented as the Society has grown in wealth and influence these business meetings, whose ostensible purpose as inaugurated by Fox the founder of such business meetings just alluded to, was for such purposes and other minor considerations as keeping a record of the births, deaths, marriages, &c., were diverted somewhat from their original design to consider doctrinal subjects, at first ignoring all creeds and confessions of faith or beliefs or disbeliefs of the many dogmas so prevalent among all other religions societies, but at a later date, they introduced them into their own society. From an outside standpoint and a true history of the Society in the present century it is plainly to be observed that their disciplinary arrangements so wisely instituted by the founder of that religious organization has been used as an engine of power over their brethren and caused divisions of the Society into smaller organizations, thereby weakening their influence and usefulness. Not long after establishing a meeting for worship, business meetings were instituted: first, a meeting to prepare business for a monthly meeting, which was subordinate to older organizations of the Society in Ohio; but as early as 1816 a quarterly business meeting was established as a branch of Ohio Yearly Meeting.

Some early reminiscences and incidents relating to this log meeting house I might here relate: The writer has a faint recollection of being, while in tender age, inside of that primitive meeting house. It had at first no mode of warming in the winter season. Stoves were almost unknown in this region previous to 1820; resort was had to sugar kettles referred to at Smith’s store, which were filled with charcoal. My youthful contemporary, the late Dr. Plummer, informs us in his early sketches had his toes pinched with cold while sitting on a back seat, a slab bench, with no back. He also says the roof leaked badly. The Doctor had the advantage of some of us Hoosiers of getting his education in an Eastern State before his father came to Richmond. He said he thought it was fortunate that Whitewater Meeting house had large cracks between the logs, else there would have been danger to those sitting near the poisonous gas of the fire in those kettles. His knowledge of the sciences led him to make the remark. When I take a retrospective view of my childhood days, memory brings before my mental vision these early pioneer friends above mentioned, sitting on that rude gallery in that log meeting house. Now their mortal tenements have mouldered to dust in the grave yard near by with no monument to mark the spot to the passerby of to-day.

One day at meeting the middle of the week, (a custom or practice with the Friends to meet for worship from their first rise over two hundred years ago,) one member came in a little past the hour of eleven o’clock, their time of meeting, took his seat near the door with a game chicken under his arm and cost. Chanticleer soon became restless, feeling, no doubt, like a cat in a strange garret, and protruding his head from his covering, made a demonstration common to his kind. This was a severe strain on the risibles of the young folks in the meeting, while a grave elder in the gallery who comprehended the situation, suggested that some one lead James out of meeting, which was done, be not being altogether compos mentis. As he lived north of the meeting house, he concluded he would kill two birds with one stone, sit meeting first, then come to Richmond and sell his rooster. That practice may not be altogether obsolete the present day.

Whitewater Yearly Meeting

About the year 1820, emigration of the Friends became so numerous, not only in Wayne county, but in Western Ohio and many parts of Indiana and Illinois and Iowa, that there seemed a demand for the establishing of a Yearly Meeting, to be located at Whitewater. Accordingly a request for this purpose was granted by this Yearly Meeting.

Before noticing the first yearly meeting held at Whitewater, I will go back to the year 1815 when Nathan Hunt, a noted minister among Friends, came to Whitewater territory, and had an appointed meeting, public for all new settlers. As the writer was too young to take cognizance of that meeting, he will have to give an imaginary sketch of it. At that early date settlements were sparse, consequently roads were but bridle ways or blazed paths through dense forests. In a few instances roads were opened enough to admit wagons and vehicles that conveyed early pioneers to meeting. The wagons and carts were the same that moved them from the Carolinas, devoid of paint, in lieu thereof pitched with tar. Some of their tacklings on the horses had husk collars and raw-hide traces. The wagons and carts having semi-circle bows over the bodies of the vehicles, with cotton or tow-linen stretched over to shelter from the storm or sun; others having no such conveyance came on horseback, some with their wives behind them. Others that could afford it had side-saddles for their wives and daughters, yet a goodly number came as pedestrians, and in some instances bare-footed. Those that had side-saddles afforded an opportunity for some of the young sprouts of the male gender to show their gallantry going to the meeting and of seeing the daughters home safe. Not unlikely, if that visit of this ministering Friend from North Carolina had not occurred, whose preaching was in the power and demonstration of the spirit (an inspiration not so common among that same professing people of this day), the writer might not have had so intimate an acquaintance with the Society.

I omitted to mention that the Friends at Whitewater, pretty soon after this meeting was established, had some among them that served as ministers. At that day no salaries were paid for preaching, however poor the minister may have been. One young man, Jesse Bond, owned the land with a new improvement where Earlham College now is. Another was William Williams (before mentioned), who settled in Richmond on South Front street, where he had a shop and made spinning wheels, a very useful article among the early farmers; he made his living as his hearers did, by laboring, and as a noted apostle many hundred years ago did. Other religious denominations at that date had to do without preaching till the Whitewater country was more developed, before any of their preachers would have a special call to locate among them.

Yearly Meeting House

When the first Yearly Meeting was held, the Friends erected a temporary shed at the end of their log meeting house, about the same size, covering it with clap-boards, &c., and seating it with slab seats or benches supplied from the first saw mills. This was an epoch in the Society’s history here in the west, and all looked forward with pleasant anticipations of seeing so many convened together, in a comparatively new country, all nearly on an equality, none rich nor none poor, all intent on opening and clearing out their lands, with round log cabins, and some with hewed log houses, two stories, with mortar of lime and sand between the logs, some of the hewed logs having about eighteen inches hewn surface, which gave the dwelling a neat appearance, being covered with home-made shingles, and a brick chimney with a smooth dressed floor of boards, &c.; having barns with well stored productions of their newly opened farms and numerous grain stacks in the vicinity standing ready to be threshed out by hand or tramped out by horses on the barn floor. As the time began to approach and the leaves began to have a sallow hue and fall off, preparation began in the vicinity to hold the first Yearly Meeting, in 1821. Friends at that date were sparsely settled in Indiana and a few in Illinois and Iowa, consequently some had to come a hundred miles to their Yearly Meetings from the west and western part of Ohio; quite a number of ministers from other Yearly Meetings from the east and North Carolina, were in attendance. The novelty of such a convocation in a comparatively new country occasioned much preparation to entertain the members free of charge. All in the vicinity of Whitewater seemed to vie with each other as who could keep the most Friends at Yearly Meeting time. Not a few beeves, calves, and sheep were sacrificed, and hen roosts were invaded for the occasion, barns were prepared for lodgers, and the floors of houses used for beds. All were welcome and on equality, no selecting of favorite guests, no committees appointed to look after boarding places, among outsiders, requiring their members to pay a dollar a day. After their first annual meeting, which was a branch off from the Ohio Yearly Meeting, Friends of Indiana Yearly Meeting thought best to provide a yearly meeting house capacious enough to accommodate all who might desire to come. At the second Yearly Meeting the subject was brought before the meeting and met with favor, and a building committee was appointed to superintend the erection of a house to be of brick. The length was to be one hundred and ten feet, width sixty feet, height thirty feet, roof of shingles. The brick were made near by and the lumber furnished by saw mill owners in the vicinity. The internal as well as external part made no pretensions to show or ornament. A kind of corridor or youths gallery extended on one side of the whole length of the building, opposite to the raised seats, as a gallery. The wood-work inside received no paint or varnish, consequently at the date of penning these lines has a sombre and gloomy appearance. Owing to the cheapness of building material at that early day, the whole cost of constructing the house did not exceed much over three thousand dollars. The money was raised by subscriptions from their members pro rata and ad valorum among the different quarterly meetings. During the progress of building this meeting house Jeremiah Cox sold his farm and lands to Charles W. Starr, and moved further west in the State. It was said he advised the building committee that whatever they did, to put twelve light eight-by-ten windows in the Yearly Meeting house. I believe that committee transcended his advice and had twenty-four lights. This meeting house has stood over fifty years, and now presents a very antiquated appearance, but when it was first erected was the theme of admiration for strangers passing by. Each year brings a convocation of members until the present date. These gatherings have, for a half century, been largely attended, especially on Sunday, or the first day of the week. Such occasions, to business men of Richmond, serves them equal to a well attended fair. Unfortunately, a few years after this large meeting house was built, the well-known schism reached the West, when many of the members were deprived of their rights in said building who had been taxed so freely under the advalorum rule. Owing to a combination of circumstances and the steady growth of Richmond from railroads, &c., the larger portion of the grounds that were donated by Jeremiah Cox for a meeting place, have passed out of the Society, leaving the house amid a small lot of ground yet under the control of the Indiana Yearly Meeting. A standing committee is appointed by the Yearly Meeting to locate another meeting place, but at the date of this going to press, no definite conclusions have been arrived at, there appearing to be a diversity of views, among the committee as to its location. Some are for retaining the same old meeting ground and erecting thereon a more modern style house. I have in my mind’s eye some whom I have known to meet at this, to them, almost hallowed ground, perhaps first carried there in their mother’s arms, but now their locks are silvered o’er with age, so that this spot of ground may have become indelibly imprinted on their memories, never to be erased; and when they view the venerated spot where lie the remains of their ancestors mingling with mother earth, no wonder they are loth to leave it for a new meeting place.

Erecting Log Cabins

Reader, I propose to leave Richmond, yet but a village, for the present, and give some description of early times on the tributaries of Whitewater, promising to return again. It will be noticed that I have already been relating some incidents of the early settlers’ lives. In the course of this sketch I shall probably tell some more, and some about myself. The first I note is about myself. As the wild flowers were about putting forth their summer splendor, and all nature was robed in her best attire, your humble servant was added to a pioneer family, bringing with him about nine pounds, honest weight, of mortality. This was all I had to begin life with, but nature was prolific in her favors toward me, by adding each year thereto till completing the ordinary development of manhood. While I was thus developing I was busy in recognizing objects around me, and propose to describe the modus operandi of erecting log cabins.

It may be recollected that I spoke of a number of families who had emigrated from the State of North Carolina, who were, in connection with the Friends, that had settled in the valleys of Whitewater in the vicinity where Richmond now is, yet there were others of the first families of the valleys that were of other persuasions, that I may in the future refer to. The Friends at first mostly selected lands in the vicinity of those chosen by Smith and Cox, who I have already stated, were influential members, which prompted them to so early an organization, as just referred to. No doubt there are many of the present date who may have not learned the mode of erecting log cabins. In some instances when these early emigrants arrived in their unique wagons, and in some cases carts, with husk collars on their horses, and rawhide traces, and wooden tire on the cart-wheels, all pitched with tar, they erected tents beside a large fallen tree, and had their camp-fires. Others had relatives or acquaintances and partook of their hospitality till a cabin could be built. After clearing a patch of ground of timber, then a dense forest, the few pioneers who were a little in advance of these new-comers, in order to facilitate the work of building a cabin to shelter those just come, would turn out en masse and help. Some with ax in hand would select of the numerous trees and saplings the most uniform in size, cutting off at the required length desired for the cabin; then haul them or carry them to the place where the cabin was to be erected, which was generally near a spring of water regardless of an eligible site; hence in after years when their farms came to be opened out, their cabins were hid away in some ravine or hollow. Digging of wells were seldom required in those days. While some were bringing the logs together, others were selecting a board tree of a large size, generally oak, cutting it up in about four feet lengths, with a cross-cut saw, (if any were so fortunate as to have one,) and with a froe and maul rive boards, called clap-boards; others would rive and split out pieces of a narrower width for a chimney. While this was going on the cabin was rapidly going up, by having among the men four expert corner-men each with an ax to saddle down the logs, having them to rest nearly upon each other, until the required height was attained, which was generally one story, forming the gable ends also with logs, narrowing them to a point for the pitch of the roof. Then placing poles across from gable to gable a short distance apart, on these the clap-boards were laid, showing two or more feet to the weather; then saplings, called weight poles, were placed upon the boards to hold them down, putting between them what was called knees, to hold them to their place. By the time this was done a spacious chimney place was cut out and split timbers prepared for back and jambs notched down. Upon this a superstructure was built to convey the smoke away, composed of sticks and clay, being mud from the virgin soil obtained on the spot; these were called stick-and-clay chimneys. No relics of these primitive chimneys are to be seen on Whitewater at this date. A profusion of dirt would be placed inside of the wooden jambs to protect them from fire, with a dirt hearth, &c. For light, they cut out a log and pasted greased paper over the opening for a window; also cut out a door-way, pinning to the ends of logs split pieces called door-cheeks. For a door, resort was had to clap-boards, nailing on battons with wrought nails made by an early settler, that I may in future allude to, which was hung with wooden hinges. The crevices between the logs were daubed with mud and clay; the floor was made by splitting timber, called puncheons, sometimes hewing one side of them and pinned down on sills with wooden pins. Not a few of the earliest Hoosiers performed their first locomotion on a puncheon floor about Whitewater, not, however, without coming in contact with the rough surface of these slabs. The cabin is now ready for the reception of the family, all completed in one day. In some instances these newcomers brought no bed-steads with them from Carolina—most too far to bring them. In the absence of any cabinetmaker they supplied this necessity for the time being by boring holes in the walls and placing cross-pieces on a forked stick, upright, fastened to the puncheon floor and rafters, and with strips of elm bark for a bottom, a bed of feathers brought with them was put on. Young reader, you are officially informed in Holland’s Life of Lincoln, that he first slept on a similar bedstead, with the exception of the feathers, had the native leaves of the forest of Indiana.

Life in a Log Cabin

Let us imagine a visit to a family housed in this rude log cabin and fixed up. Let us enter while some of the family club away the dogs threatening to bite us. We find a leather latchstring hanging out that lifts a wooden latch fastened on the inside; this arrangement serves in place of lock and key when the inmates in the night season are all in-doors, by merely pulling the string in; but in the day time the latch-string is always out. Here is a portion of the family sitting around a chest that contained their valuables, partaking of a frugal meal prepared on the log-heap fire, with a wooden pot trammel hanging from a piece of timber high up in the chimney upon which they hung the pot. Their meat was fried in a frying-pan with a four foot handle; this useful article they brought with them. In one corner were placed two or more of the surplus clapboards on pins, upon which a display of table ware appeared, comprising a few cups and saucers and a few blue-edged plates; to give relief, a goodly number of pewter plates were conspicuous. Underneath, on the floor, a few pots or Dutch ovens were seen. Not many chairs were at first brought. In lieu thereof they had stools made of puncheons, with three legs. Upon the inner walls hung divers garments of female attire, consisting of cotton fabric, calico dresses, belonging to the matrons and misses, the ground color blue with white spots. Over the door-way was hung the trusty rifle upon two forked sticks, probably taken from a dog wood bush, and nailed with two wrought nails to the logs of the cabin. For the present we will take leave of this pioneer family while some one minds the dogs till we get away. Gentle reader, in such rude domiciles many of our well-do-do farmers who may read these lines on the Whitewaters, lived in their primitive days. Perchance some who are now in the sear and yellow leaf of life, though in possession of ample fortunes and the conveniences and improvements of this age, may look back to those days of log cabins as their happiest and most peaceful, when plainness and simplicity prevailed in the household and ruddy and healthy children were congregated around the family board. No one envied his neighbor for possessing superior comforts than himself; all were comparatively on an equality.

Clearing Land

The curling of the blue smoke could now be seen from other log cabins, with small patches cleared around their rude habitations in the dense wilderness. These stalwart pioneers were generally in their prime of life; but few aged ones came at first. They went to work with a will to clear the land of its forest timber for the reception of grain for their support. For the information of some of the present generation and the future ones, I will describe briefly how those broad, fertile fields with no remnants of a forest upon them and appear as if none had ever been. They were at the coming in of the present century a wilderness where the wild beasts roamed unmolested by the white man; no prairies of any magnitude in this region, these all lay to far west. Young reader, all these beautiful fertile farms you behold were cleared of their timber and undergrowth, of various kinds of wild fruit, as grapes, plums, gooseberries, paw-paws, crab apples, &c., by your forefathers. The first thing was to get cabins built and sometimes before, they “deaden,” as it was called. This was done by going over the forest they wished to clear with an ax and chopping around each tree. This stopped the communication of the sap through the body of the tree which soon caused its decay. That being done, they would cut down what did not fall, cut the trees up into twelve or more feet lengths, the brush being piled up in a heap. But there was another somewhat novel mode of cutting up logs. Having previously mentioned that the earliest settlers were from slave States, hence probably the idea was suggested to them of having some kind of element to do the work for them in a much cheaper and easier way then by use of human muscle. The operation was this: they placed smaller logs and dry rubbish across the log and applied fire to them; this was called “niggering.” The writer has a recollection of seeing these white lords of creation paying as much attention to this niggering process as if they had actually been the descendents of Africa, who formerly worked for them; and sometimes would say after a social chat with a neighbor, or coming home from Friends’ Monthly Meeting, “I must go and right up my niggers.” Another reason might be rendered for this mode of getting logs into several parts, for in these days, like the story of the creation of the world, “Man was not yet made,” or, at least the workers of iron had not come to Whitewater territory, consequently implements of farming were few, and none to make axes. After they had got the thickest of the fallen timber cut and niggered off then came the process of log-rolling. They would invite the neighbors for some distance around to come to assist in piling these logs together in large heaps. This generally would occupy a day or more. In some instances the good wives and mothers would come and assist in helping to cook for the company. In those days luxuries were not to be obtained; they had to be content with the substantials of life, such as bread and meat. This meat generally consisted of the wild species of the hog, which mostly obtained subsistence by the mast of the forest. They were of a reddish, sandy color; their noses or snouts were very much elongated; legs of good length—the former were no doubt designed for rooting in the ground, and the latter to assist in keeping out of harm’s way. It was difficult to catch them; sometimes they were run down with a horse and worried by dogs. Bread was most difficult to procure before mills had been built. The early settlers had to go on a pilgrimage journey to Ohio for their bread-stuff. But the virgin soil produced vegetables in provision, such as potatoes, turnips, pumpkins, &c., hence pumpkin pies were the desert dish at rollings, house raisings and corn huskings. After getting these logs reduced to ashes and the brush heaps burnt, and the rails split to fence the clearing, they would set about planting corn and other things.

Farming

Before proceeding further I will give some idea of the kind of farming implements then used. For a plow that was first used was called a “bar share,” the iron part consisting of a bar of iron near three feet long, upon which a broad share of iron was welded; at the extreme point a coulter was placed, which passed through the beam, this being some six or seven feet long, to which was attached handles of corresponding length, having a wooden mould board, split out of a board tree imitating the proper twist as best his ingenuity might study out; the whole length of the plow, including beam and handles, from eight to ten feet. With this plow the new settlers managed to plow among the many undecayed stumps and their roots, but not without much inconvenience. When the plower who, some times was in his teens, endeavored to guide the ponderous plow around a stump by pressing his unequal weight down to raise the point of the coulter above a root, it would sometimes strike a root before the horses could be stopped, and the young plow-boy found himself tossed some distance off. A shovel-plow was also used, not unlike those of the present day, save its rude construction. With it inexperienced young farmers managed to get along better among the stumps, and succeeded in raising a good crop of corn. Tradition says, that some, after the first crop of corn, the next spring, pulled up the old stalks and planted in the hole. How much these economical farmers raised to the acre I never learned. When they sowed their small grain they would use brush tied together and drag it over the ground. An iron-tooth harrow, a log chain and a pair of sheep shears all did not have. Those who had, the other neighbors deemed it to their interest to be on good terms with. I once recollect when my father removed from one farm to another a few miles distant, of a near neighbor woman regretting the move on account of not being able any more to borrow our sheep shears.

Making Linen

Flax seed was early sowed solely to get the lint to prepare it for spinning to make home-made linen. The first process after being matured was to pull it up by the roots and spread it out on the same ground to rot by rain and sunshine, which loosened the lint from the stem; then it was broken in a flax-brake. This machine was quite simple but difficult to describe; suffice it to say, it had wooden swords passing between and close to each other, half of them stationary, on legs like a bench, the others fastened with a roller and had a head-block and a handle to it. The person would put the flax on and pound on it, going up and down like an alligator’s mouth till the flax was broken sufficient to twist up, like chignons that some ladies wear at this day. It was then ready for the scutching. The way that was done, was simply to dress the end of a clap-board square and smooth, and drive it in the ground, and have a wooden swingling knife about two feet long; the broken flax was placed on the end of the board and pounded till the shives were all cleared from the lint, which reduced it to a much less size, nearly all being pure lint. Now for the hackling process. An early blacksmith made these hackles, by working out of wrought iron, spikes about four inches long, very sharp pointed; these would be placed in a board in a space about four by eight inches. The lint was drawn through this repeatedly till all the loose particles of tow were separated. It was now rolled up in a similar manner as from the brake, only much smaller, and was ready for spinning. Except the breaking, the work in preparing was generally done by the mothers and grown daughters. I have alluded to spinning wheels that the preacher made. The machine was somewhat complicated, but easily constructed and cheap. Some ingenious person invented a distaff, made from a dogwood bush, bringing the prongs together and tied, and had it to revolve with the lint rolled on; this the mother or maiden would spin off on to a spool. They made vocal music in thus spinning, similar to a hand-organ, while holding the distaff; see proverbs of Solomon. It now was ready for weaving. As looms are not altogether obsolete, I may omit a description of them and merely say they were somewhat rudely constructed. It was a tedious process to put the threads through the reeds, one by one. I believe the Carolinians called them “sleys.” I heard a very early settler, at an Old Settlers’ meeting some years ago, tell about his bringing some of them when he moved to Whitewater. As he told the joke on himself, probably he will not blame me if I repeat it. In coming with a four-horse team, he arrived at Cincinnati, a considerable town then, in the month of August. Stopping a few hours to do some shopping, he stepped in a store and asked the merchant if he wanted to buy some “sleys.” He was answered “No.” The store-keeper eyed him a moment, when he inquired where he came from. He replied, “Carliny.” “I thought so,” said the merchant. The Cincinnatian supposed he meant sleighs, to be used when snow was on the ground. The new comer went to his team and family where they had been fed, mounted the saddle-horse and drove out of town, but says he became so mad, he stopped his team at the outskirts of the town and lit off, told his wife lie was going back to town. She asked, “What for?” He said, “I am going to whip a storekeeper;” but through the mild persuasions of his better-half, he again mounted and drove on. These sleys or reeds were very useful in the early times. A reed peddler was a welcome visitor, much more so then many peddlers of the present day. After getting the thread through the reed the warp was wound on a beam; the writer has a recollection of performing that operation by using a long round stick putting it in holes at the end of the beam, while another would hold the web fast in-hand with a pull, etc. The mother or a bouncing miss would seat herself on a board and ply the shuttle back and forth, and beat up the thread with a quick jerk of the reed in a swinging frame. Now let us fancy the web wove, say twenty-five yards or more; the good wife would then calculate how many garments it would make to go around the family for all to have a shirt apiece and, the other name, for the mothers and daughters. These home-made linen shirts, though a little rough, were very durable, and when bleached extremely white, is not to be compared with the flimsy, starched muslin of this day. The reader must be informed that the tow was not thrown away, but was spun and wove as the fine linen. This served to make breeches for the males and for bed-ticking, towels, &c.